SEPARATE BUT EQUAL? – A Reflective Analysis of the Desegregation Policy in Norfolk after Brown vs. the Board of Education (1953-1960)

     In 1954, a landmark decision by the U.S. Supreme Court opened the door for equal rights in education. This decision came on the heels of several landmark events, such as Thurgood Marshall’s argument for school integration in front of the Supreme Court some ten years before. With the Brown v. Board of Education ruling, the justices hoped to level the educational playing field by allowing black students to begin attending the same schools as white students.

     The new policy was controversial and school districts had trouble adjusting. While some made adjustments within five years, others took 10, 15 years, and there are some who would suggest that segregation still exists at some level today. In fact, there is the basis for an argument that the policy may not have been reverted, but the numbers suggest that our students are being separated yet again. Therein lies the irony. For the sake of this article, the concentration will deal with one system in Hampton Roads  that fought the landmark decision with great resistance - the city of Norfolk.

     As would be expected, most of the changes in policy occurred between 1953 and 1960. In spite of its historical context, the policy does work as a good case study to show how a problematic policy gets implemented. In Norfolk,  the integration issue started before 1954 as an all-white parochial school, Blessed Sacrament, enrolled a black student in 1953, opening up the idea that integration was possible. Most of the opposition to Brown v. Board of Education came in the form of political action. Some acts, such as the “cool heads” approach and formation of a 32-member panel to discuss the effects of Brown v. Board of Education seemed sensible. Others, such as the declaration of Sen. Harry Flood Byrd to stop integration plans, was based more on emotion meant to rile up his political base.

     In Norfolk, resistance continued. The 1955 Brown II ruling placing policy implementation with the district courts caused the Norfolk Redevelopment and Housing Authority (NRHA) to begin redistricting neighborhoods in the hopes of keeping students separated, although now by neighborhood. But, by separating the black and white neighborhoods as districts, the effect was the same. Even after 233 black citizens signed a petition requesting that the Norfolk school board act in “good faith compliance,” the resistance continued. In spite of Governor Stanley’s claim that the state was acting in a righteous manner, behind the scenes, tempers were flaring. In early 1956, Sen. Byrd introduced the term “massive resistance” and introduced a set of laws designed to prevent desegregation. A month later 101 southern politicians signed the “Southern Manifesto,”  condemning the Supreme Court for interfering with states rights.  Two months later, the NAACP filed suit against the Norfolk school board to end segregation. This case would be decided and appealed several times. Three similar suits followed, one in Newport News. With the stir caused by the Rosa Parks incident in Alabama, the movement found its way to the forefront of the public eye, and by the end of 1956, the Virginia General Assembly convened for a hearing on public school segregation, at which notable black leaders from the NAACP were given the opportunity to be herd in a public forum. However, two weeks later, through the Pupil Placement Act, the General Assembly ordered all schools with black and white students attending to be closed.

     The first half of 1957 was left to the court system. Federal judge Walter Hoffman rendered an opinion on two separate, but related cases - Beckett v. School Board of the City of Norfolk and Adkins v. School Board of the City of Newport News. In both cases, Judge Hoffman declared the Pupil Placement Act to be unconstitutional and ordered integration. Later in 1957, the “Little Rock 9” began school in Arkansas and the ball was rolling.

     But the ball threatened to stop once and for all as the forces collided in the hardest possible way in 1958. Virginia had elected a new governor, J. Lindsay Almond, who rode the resistance wave into office. In spite of Judge Hoffman’s ruling that every application from a black student be handled fairly and promptly, the powers that be in Norfolk were not willing to give up. In 1958, they changed the rules. Their claim was that each student application to a school would be handled by the student’s proximity to the school, scholastic aptitude, availability of seats, and character of the student. Then, the School Board proceeded to reject all 151 applications from black students desiring to go to white schools. Hoffman ordered a review, reminding the members of the Board of their legal obligations. The Board took a week to ponder its options, then went back to work and found 17 students worthy of entrance. However, they requested that the 17 students be denied admission until September 1959. This request was denied; in fact, the beginning of school in Norfolk was delayed two weeks, to September 22, in order to allow the black students in.

     On September 27^th, Gov. Almond took over control of the Norfolk schools, and like he had done in other districts, ordered them closed, leaving black and white students out of school.

     At this point, the citizens and businesspeople of Norfolk took matters into their own hands and founded the “Committee for Public Schools.” Their letters and petitions were met with opposition from the Governor and local officials, but their efforts led to a legal challenge, which culminated in the 1959 decision of a federal court, finding the closing of schools to be unconstitutional and illegal. This brought attention not just to local media, but national as well. When Edward R.Murrow broadcast his “The Lost Class of ‘59” on the CBS National News, the negative backlash was enough to quiet the politicians and get the six closed schools reopened with little military, police or parental opposition.

     Gov. Almond made one last ditch effort in 1959 to provide for the safeguarding of all segregated schools, but in 1960 he realized it was a battle that would not be won. So, he ordered the integration of all schools in Virginia. Ironically, Norfolk was named an “All-American” city that year.

    

References

Brewbaker, John Joseph. Desegregation in the Norfolk Public Schools. Norfolk, VA: Southern Regional  

     Council, 1960. Retrieved on August 2, 2009.

Gruss, Mike and Philip Walzer. "Pioneers of Progress." (Series: Brown v. Board of Education: 1954-2004).

     The Virginian-Pilot, February 1, 2004. (Factiva). Retrieved on August 1, 2009

Nichols, James Andrew. The Turning of a City's Soul: Norfolk's Public School Integration Crisis, 1954-

     1959. M.A., History, VPI, 2003. (http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-09192003-

     125601/unrestricted/Nichols.pdf). Retrieved on July 30, 2009

Parramore, Thomas C. Norfolk: The First Four Centuries. Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia,

     1994. (Chapter 25: A sojourn in the Byrd-cage, pp. 362-376) F234.N8P375 1994. Retrieved on

     August 2, 2009.

Virginian-Pilot. Fighting Massive Resistance. (Six part series running from 9/28/2008-10/3/2008)

     http://www.pilotonline.com/. Retrieved on August 1, 2009.

White, Forrest R. Pride and Prejudice: School Desegregation and Urban Renewal in Norfolk, 1950-1959.

     Westport, CT: Praeger, 1992. HT177.N66W45 1992. Retrieved on August 1, 2009

Dominic Goes To Jeopardy - Part One: The Process

For young Dominic Olivera, the journey toward playing “Jeopardy” in front of a national audience was nearly as interesting as the experience itself.

Every year, the Jeopardy producers at Sony Pictures Company look to line up 15 individuals for their annual “Kids Week.” The idea, according to the CBS press release, is to “celebrate youth and academic excellence with fifteen of the nation’s brightest 10-, 11- and 12-year olds competing.”

The winnowing process is long and brutal. While perhaps not American Idol-ish in its degree of difficulty, there is still a matter of entertaining tens of thousands of pre-teens who dream of bantering with host Alex Trebek right after nailing the Final Jeopardy answer to win thousands of dollars. For Kids Week, the winner of each of the five games was guaranteed a minimum of $15,000.

Gathering the potential contestants was easy enough. As the #1 rated quiz show on television, Jeopardy claims almost nine million loyal viewers on a daily basis and in most major markets, a slot at 7:30 PM, right after “Wheel of Fortune.”  Finding test takers is as easy as presenting a well-placed ad heading into a commercial break requesting applicants to take the Jeopardy “test.” Unlike “WoF,” it is imperative for the Jeopardy producers at Sony to find contestants who are generally brighter than the viewing audience. While “Fortune” viewers take delight in answering the puzzle before the players, most Jeopardy watchers are happy just to keep up.

The first test was online and over 40,000 kids signed on. The first hurdle toward making it on the show is to pass this exam and the number of successful applicants is not readily available. Upon registering for the online test, applicants are allowed to choose the city where they would like to audition, if they are selected. Being from Northern Virginia, Philadelphia was the closest city to the Oliveras.

Soon after completing the exam, young Dominic received word that his score was worthy of a passing grade and he received an invitation to attend the audition in Philly. There are two good reasons for the audition. First, the invitees are given another test. As noted by Dominic’s mother, Gina, it is “to ensure you have the intellectual chops and that Daddy didn’t take the (online) test for you.” In this case, Dominic’s father Mario accompanied his son to the audition while Gina stayed home to care for the other three children – Vincent, Anthony and the youngest, Sophia.

The other reason for the audition is to acquaint the potential contestants with the workings of Jeopardy and to identify the most personable contestants. The process includes an interview with a member of the production staff and a mock Jeopardy game complete with bells and buzzers. Personality, intellect and stage presence are key components for the typical Jeopardy contestant, regardless of age. Dominic was given the opportunity to wow the producers with stories from his other extracurricular activities, which include music (he plays a mean piano and has performed before large audiences in the past), Boy Scouts (getting ready to begin his Eagle Scout project and recently completed a five day, 50-mile canoe/whitewater venture) and church. Dominic is an active member of Holy Trinity Catholic Church in Gainesville, VA, where among other activities he has been an altar server for four years.

Leaving the audition in Philadelphia, the only promise Dominic received was that the producers would “be in touch” if selected.

Then the wait began….

After a couple of months, Gina admits that they had “kind of forgotten about it and just figured they were not going to call.”

Then one day, the news arrived. Dominic’s presence was requested at the Sony Pictures Television studio in Culver City, CA as one of the 15 contestants selected for Kids Jeopardy week. The taping was to take place in early March.

There was only one problem. Mario, a lieutenant colonel in the Air Force, was getting ready to ship out to Afghanistan and his departure date had been pushed back to just before the taping. In fact, the going away “open house” party, set for February 5^th, had been cancelled as it was now the day that he would leave.

What to do when you love your job…and it’s becoming obsolete

One of the hardest scenarios for a worker to accept is being in a job that is meaningful and rewarding, then having it pulled away as the skill or position becomes obsolete. In the advancing age of technology, this is becoming commonplace. While the loss of a loved job can be upsetting, there are certain things an employee can do to put oneself in an admirable position as the inevitable changes in a workplace begin to take shape.

Change is inevitable

By design, many of us are creatures of habit. We put our pants on a preferred leg first on a daily basis, brush our teeth using a familiar routine, drive to work using the same route, etc.

While many of us grow defensive at the prospect of change, it is also true that the more successful employees are those who maintain numerous skills and accept change as part of the changing workplace. This allows for a more stable transition when a change is made. In the case of a job becoming obsolete, one must be aware of the future prospects for the job. Staying informed to trends in one’s industry and company is a way to prepare for any pending change.

This ability to “see around the corner” is a great skill to develop whether one is a worker or manager. It is better to be prepared for future change ahead of one’s colleagues.

Stay Positive and Adaptable

Regardless of internal strife, it is always best to project a positive attitude. Instead of looking at your obsolete job as an inconvenience, view the situation as an opportunity for change, a chance to develop new skills and gain professional training. Taking advantage of training in the present may keep a worker employed in the future. Show a willingness to adapt and always keep a positive mindset. This can go a long way in separating a worker from negative colleagues, which is a trait that bodes well in the eyes of supervisors.

Gain New Skills

Having the ability to “look around the corner” also includes having the skills to predict which jobs will be desirable in the future. As an employee, one should take advantage of every opportunity to learn new skills, especially technology-based tasks. Staying a step ahead of co-workers leads to more chances to obtain future positions with the company. Engaging in professional training, especially on a voluntary basis, shows a willingness to improve, and completing skill-based courses makes a worker more valuable to a business during a period of change. It also opens doors for the worker whose job is becoming obsolete.

Network

As the adage says, it is “who you know.” Maintaining an open network of colleagues and co-workers can prove to be valuable when one’s job becomes obsolete. In order to possess the ability to “see around the corner,” one must keep in contact with present connections. This does not mean sharing office gossip, but rather an open exchange of ideas. Staying involved with professional associations and networking groups (i.e. LinkedIn) is a great way to see what others in one’s profession are doing, particularly during a period of job change.

Coming Soon!! Dominic Goes to Hollywood --- for "Kids Jeopardy"

Typically I prefer not to tease future articles, but today I have a good reason.

Last Friday evening (July 8th), Dominic Olivera, a 12-year old from Bristow, VA, competed on the fifth and final installment of Kids Jeopardy. Being lifetime friends with the family, we greatly anticipated the opportunity to watch the game, especially considering the frequent reminders coming from his mother, aunt and grandmother! Given the secretive workings of Jeopardy, we did not even bother to ask any of the relatives how Dominic might have done on the show. We assumed that he performed very well. Here's why.

There is one thing that my wife Elizabeth and I have noticed over the years - that is, Dominic is one of the most brilliant kids we have encountered; in fact, all four of Gina and Rio's kids are highly intelligent. For the sake of background, Gina is a former Air Force officer with a master's degree in public administration while Mario (aka Rio) is currently an Air Force lieutenant colonel stationed in Afghanistan. Legend has it that they met at the "O" club on base. Five years ago, they were stationed at Langley AFB and lived in Newport News. On a visit to their home near the shipyard, we were greatly entertained by the seven-year old Dominic, who kept us in stitches with his imitations of politicians, often quoting them verbatim. Three years later, after the Oliveras had graciously donated a room full of furniture to help us after a house fire, my U-Haul trip to Bristow (which is just southwest of Manassas) was brightened by young Dominic's renditions of "The Entertainer" and other ragtime tunes on the piano, which made the lugging of chairs and couches much easier.

To put this in current perspective, Dominic is about to begin work on his Eagle Scout project. Did I mention that he's 12?

Anyhow, we figured that he did well. After watching the game, which had a phenomenal ending, I had an opportunity to speak with Dominic and his mother. Although I have watched the game for 25 years, our 60-minute conversation enlightened me about the game of Jeopardy in ways that were previously unknown. No, I didn't learn any trade secrets (having grown up in a CIA family, even I am impressed by the shroud of secrecy surrounding the operation), but did gain some valuable insight into the process of getting on the show, the waiting game, the trip to Hollywood (a story in itself!), how the show works, how the buzzers work, how Alex Trebek works... etc...

It didn't take long to realize that I had enough information for a two-part article, and it wasn't going to get finished today :/

So, for the readers of the Wall, I welcome you to look forward to a two-part segment on Dominic Olivera's trip to Jeopardy with posts appearing on Thursday, July 21st and 28th. Of course, the regular educational pieces will be added on Monday July 18th and 25th. Thanks for the support to date. The rate of "hits" has doubled over the past two months and things are continuing to expand!   --- Jim

Community-based curriculum for Black History Month

Perhaps my timing is off with today's post and I will surely amend this version when February rolls back around. However, the point here is to for urban teachers to think of Black History types of activities as more than something to occupy the month of February. If teaching and communicating go hand-in-hand, then the best way to reach students is to meet them with topics they are most interested with. This is not to suggest that every research paper has to be about Lil Wayne and Ice-T, but the four objectives stated here are particularly useful guidelines.

In order for a community-based curriculum for Black History Month to be successful, there are several objectives which must be addressed, not only during February, which is officially Black History Month, but throughout the year.

The four main objectives of a successful program are 1) embracing community involvement, 2) raising awareness to African-American issues, 3) educating about the past, from slavery through the Civil Rights movement, while preparing for the future, and 4) developing a program which will continue to grow and prosper after the month of February. Any flourishing curriculum program will include elements of history, sociology, community service, and to a lesser degree, event planning and business management.

There are several existing programs worth reviewing as examples of successful community–based curriculum ventures. The organizations may have possibly started in February, but developed into worthwhile and successful year-round entities.

RAMP

In the Pittsburgh (PA) region, a volunteer organization called RAMP (Raising Achievement in Monroeville and Pitcairn) has embraced the concept of community involvement by forming a group dedicated to closing the academic achievement gaps which exist between subgroups of students. According to their mission statement, this is created by raising achievement in their students while creating an environment that believes in them. Within their organization, they have created several programs including community gatherings, tutoring sessions and incentive programs which reward students for raising their report card grades by one letter grade or more.

Arthur Ashe Children’s Program

In Washington, DC, the Arthur Ashe Children’s Program, named for the late tennis star and human rights activist, serves over 450 at-risk students in 20 DC schools, combining academics with athletics and life skills. The program reaches students from early elementary through high school and includes student projects which topics such as “The Marketing of Tennis Apparel,” “How to do Stock Analysis,” and “Pollution and the Environment” Combined with a strenuous tennis instruction session along with a Reading is Fundamental (RIF) literacy program, the programs, run through the Washington Tennis and Education Foundation, boast a 100% college acceptance rate for its seniors who have worked through the WTEF Center for Excellence.

History Lesson at the Apollo Theater

In New York City, Columbia University’s Oral Research Office and the Apollo Theater Foundation have joined forces to document and preserve the history of the world-famous theater, which celebrated its 75^th anniversary in 2009 and is known as a centerpiece of the Harlem Renaissance movement. The Oral Research Office has produced more than 150 hours of interviews with Apollo performers such as Smokey Robinson and Leslie Uggams, while also interviewing important black community leaders in Harlem to develop a program which also integrates the history of theater as well as the Harlem neighborhood into one curriculum program.

Columbia has also added three online resources. MAAP, short for Mapping the African-American past, combines interview material with photos and maps among its archives. The Amistad Digital Resource has been developed to assist teachers, while Columbia’s Black History Month Web site looks back on the university’s initiatives and work in research projects as they relate to recent African-American history.

Community-based curriculum starts at school

Successful curriculum programs take advantage of the school as a community learning center, available for all members of a neighborhood. Forming its building blocks toward the young school age student, but looking to develop lifelong learners, there are many resources available to build a curriculum for Black History Month. For example, at Scholastic.com, an entire section of its website is dedicated to lesson plans, activities and instructional guides for the teacher to use for planning purposes. Lessons include “All That Jazz” and “Black History Math Hunt.”

2012 Olympic Track Preview - Three Hampton Lady Pirates in the House

The 2011 USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships, held two weekends ago at fabled Hayward Field in Eugene, Oregon (a.k.a. Tracktown), provided a cursory look at some of the names and faces who will grace television screens around the world next year as part of the 2012 U.S.  Olympic team. The top three finishers of each event in Eugene qualified to represent this year’s American team at the IAAF World Championships in Daegu, Korea, beginning on August 27.

Amazingly, three of the female athletes who earned airtime during the NBC and Universal Sports television coverage of the meet have a common bond in that they are all recent graduates of Hampton University in Southeastern Virginia. Although running more for personal glory than Pirate pride these days, there is still a connection of sorts among the three – Kellie Wells, Francena McCorory and Yvette Lewis, that being the dream of representing their country and winning an Olympic gold medal. The trio didn’t all compete together for Coach Maurice Pierce at Hampton (Wells and Lewis were teammates from 2003 – 2006, Lewis and McCorory in 2006-07, the year after Wells graduated), but do bump into each other frequently at track meets in America and Europe. As the first of a series of profiles into potential members of the 2012 Olympic track team, here’s an introductory look at three Lady Pirates with visions of emerging victorious in London.

The Veteran - Kellie Wells

   Wells is the oldest of the three (29 on July 16th) and possibly the athlete most primed for Olympic gold given her age, experience and record of recent success.

At Eugene, Wells won gold in the 100-meter hurdles, with an inspiring performance in a world best time of 12.50, topping better known competitors such as Lolo Jones and Danielle Carruthers. Speaking to NBC’s Louis Johnson (after hugging him), her emotion was apparent. “I’m speechless and I’m a woman of many words!”

Indeed, Wells had traveled a rocky road. At the 2008 Olympic Trials, the Richmond, VA native competed in the semifinals and crossed the line in a personal best of 12.58 to qualify for the finals. However, with her first step after crossing the line, she heard a pop and suddenly fell to the track. The pop was from a tear in her hamstring and prevented Wells from the opportunity to compete for a shot at making the team.

Most of the 2009 season was spent in recovery mode, but signs of life showed in 2010 as the graduate of James River HS finished second in the 100 hurdles at the USA Outdoor Championships and ended up ranked ninth in the world for the event.

The road to recovery continued into 2011. Wells won her first US title in the indoor 55-meter hurdles with a world best time of 7.79. Her winning ways continued through the outdoor season with strong finishes at meets in Doha and Rome, then reached a new plateau with the race in Eugene. Given that the women’s hurdling contingent is arguably the strongest group of tracksters on the Olympic team, it looks as if the strongest from the group of Wells, Jones and others will take gold at the World Championships and become the immediate favorite for London.

The Phenom - Francena McCorory

McCorory is just 22 years old, but boasts a wealth of accomplishments over her short career. At the 2010 NCAA Indoor Track Championships, she won her second consecutive collegiate 400 title, but this time broke the nineteen-year old American record of Diane Dixon with a blazing time of 50.54. This was not her first American record, having also set the national standards for the 300 (indoor) and 400 (outdoor) as a star athlete at Hampton’s Bethel HS.

In one memorable high school race, at the 2006 Eastern region championships, McCorory ran the anchor leg for the Lady Bruins 1600-meter relay and grabbed the baton in eighth and last place, roughly 70 meters behind the leader. In a memorable comeback, she managed to systematically pass all seven other runners while posting an unprecedented split of 51.9. Accomplishments such as these helped McCorory earn the title of HS Athlete of the Decade from the Peninsula’s (VA) DAILY PRESS newspaper..

McCorory entered the finals of the 400 at Eugene with a strong qualifying time, but a heavy heart. Two weeks before the national meet, her father passed and she was determined to dedicate the finals race to his memory. In spite of a sluggish start, she regained her composure between the 150 and 350-meter marks and almost chased down three-time world champion Allyson Felix while finishing second. The margin (50.40 – 50.49) of difference was close enough to consider the Hampton resident a favorite to win a medal in Daegu, with Felix serving as her main competition for the gold.

The Grinder - Yvette Lewis

To date, Lewis has been a victim of an unusual run of bad fortune in her professional career. In 2007, the native of Newport News, VA finished second in the triple jump at the US Championships only to not qualify for the World Championships due to missing the qualifying standard. At the Olympic trials the following year, Lewis turned in a jump of 13.84/45-5 (after a best of 45-6.5 in the preliminaries), only to finish in fourth and miss making the Olympic team by one place and less than five inches.

The two-time NCAA champ also narrowly missed qualifying for the American team heading to Daegu. At Eugene two weeks ago, Lewis placed fifth in the triple jump, then was disqualified from the women’s 100-meter hurdle finals due to a false start caused by a very minor shoulder move.

However, the future still looks bright for Lewis. At 26, she reports to looking forward to competing in a full slate of meets in Europe this summer while keeping in check for next year’s Olympic trials where she will be a force to be reckoned with in the triple jump and 100-meter hurdles.  Don’t count out the woman who essentially won a state title for the Menchville (HS) girls track team by herself in 2003, then later set a Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference (MEAC) record with 48 individual points at the 2006 meet.

Mentoring Talented High School Writers

 

One of the greatest challenges for a secondary school teacher is working with the talented writer. While having the opportunity to work with a gifted young writer can be one of the greatest rewards from working in the teaching profession, it can also create angst and stress because of the elements involved with developing this unique talent.

However, there is little question of the importance of the writing mentor. Susan Meyers, who has implemented a pilot program called the OSU Writing Liaison at Oregon State, feels a good mentoring program can “give students a practical application for the knowledge they’re gaining in class and provide them with a stronger connection to their community.”

There are a few important points to consider when working with the talented high school writer. The objective is to develop the imaginative side of your student’s writing while realizing the practical opportunities which are created by proficient writing ability.

Finding a Focus

There are three areas of development for the teacher to focus on when working with the talented young writer. The first is maintaining interest. This can be accomplished in several ways, such as holding creative writing workshops, various mentoring sessions with foci on poetry, fiction, non-fiction, journalism and other writing genres. This helps the student find a writing preference. One student may have great talent in researching and biographies while another may be a budding screenwriter or poet. The key is to be exposed to all different types of writing.

Challenge the Student

As with a subject within the core curriculum, the mentor must find ways to challenge the high school writer. In an ideal situation, the students compete with themselves as the mentor works in a facilitating role, escorting the students toward their highest potential. Exposure to all types of writing helps to broaden the writing range of the student. On the other hand, “raising the bar” may challenge the student and help with finding an audience. Examples of this can be entering in essay contests, applying for high school internships with newspapers and radio stations, creating a literary magazine or weblog at the school level and submitting a letter to the editor of a local publication. These lead to practical experience and the opportunity to see ones work published.

Career Exploration

A good mentor keeps students aware of career opportunities, partly through activities as the ones previously mentioned. While many proficient writers wish to hone their journalism or poetry writing skills, it is necessary to help students understand the importance of writing in careers such as real estate, business, politics and police work. The mentor should introduce students to elements of technical writing, including abstracts as well as proposal and incident reports. This helps the student acquire a broad range of skills as well as an understanding of business writing.

Examples of Successful Mentoring Programs

There are many mentoring programs at the school system and local level. Here are two examples.

Capitol City Young Writers is a non-profit organization based out of El Dorado Hills, CA. Their goal, as provided in its mission statement, is to educate today’s youth on the art and business of writing. They are known for exposing students to fiction, nonfiction, poetry, and other forms, such as songwriting.

WriteGirl was developed to “help girls write their way to positive futures.” Founded in 2001, their goal is to help teenage girls who lack access to creative writing or mentoring programs. They also focus on developing writing in all genres through one-on-one mentoring and monthly creative workshops, as well as an annual seven full-day writing workshop.