How ESL Teachers Relate Their Ethnic and Social Backgrounds to Practice: An Article Review

In her article, published in the March 2011 journal of Race, Ethnicity and Education, Dr. Lasisi Ajayi, a professor at San Diego State University, uses the ethnic background of her state, California, to present a strong argument for the importance of ESL teachers relating their ethnic and social backgrounds to instructional practices.

California, as a whole, is one of the most diverse states in America. But, instead of concentrating on her San Diego base, Ajayi traveled two hours north to Los Angeles, where she found 57 English as Second Language (ESL) teachers from inner-city junior high schools who were willing to answer her questionnaire, sit down for an interview and share their own perspectives in writing with regard to how their personal histories were reflected in their teaching pedagogical practices.

Ajayi presents useful data to note the increase of ethnic minority students, as well as teachers, in the Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD), and then uses her data findings to pose two questions:

      ·         How do ESL teachers backgrounds influence their conceptions of their roles, instructional decision-making, and efforts to negotiate the increasingly complex institutional and policy climates in which they work?

·         How do teacher educators and researchers engage in the development of teacher education programs and curricula that incorporate exploration of teachers’ personal backgrounds and attitudes?

 Ajayi came into the study with the hypotheses that ESL teachers make connections between their ethnic/social backgrounds and instructional practices (p. 255). On a larger scale, having the ability to draw on these backgrounds and experiences can benefit teachers now and in the future if the pedagogical choices made by the teacher can be identified and used in future teacher education programs.

The author’s states her purpose as determining the ways that ESL teachers interpret their ethnic and social backgrounds to mediate their pedagogical roles. She guides her study using two more questions:

·         How do the teachers’ ethnic and social backgrounds relate to their instructional decision-making in teaching ESL?

·         How do their views mediate their understanding of their roles as teachers and their interpretations of the institutional and policy climate of their schools?

After the introduction, Ajayi moves on to presenting her theoretical framework on teachers’ backgrounds and practices using the poststructuralist theory, while looking at the rejection of human beings having a coherent identity, a person’s link to society, the relationship among thinking, teaching and knowledge, and the classroom as a social and political site.

Her literature review concludes with the suggestion that ESL teachers’ backgrounds are a crucial source of knowledge and experience from which they construct their practice (p. 257) and that there is more to learn from investigating how ESL teachers reconcile their personal backgrounds and perspectives with teaching ESL (p. 257).

Ajayi proceeds to the demographic data of the student population of LAUSD. Having no personal relationship with the students, this data is useful in presenting the broad picture of the student makeup. According to the school system website, in 2008, there were over 746,000 students in the district, of which 72% were Hispanic, 12% African-American, 9% White and 6% Asian. On the other hand, the teachers’ demographics showed that 47.8% of teachers were White, 27.9% Hispanic, 12.8% African-American and 8.4% Asian. (p. 257). Other notable data includes 25% of K-12 public school students being ESL and representing more than 100 languages.

 Methodology

 Ajayi’s first step was to develop a questionnaire to collect biographical data. There were four parts to the survey. Part I included 11 questions focusing on the teachers’ racial, linguistic, gender, experience, age and educational backgrounds. The second section was used to determine the relevancy of the ESL curriculum and program in the teachers’ schools and how well they were addressing the students’ needs. Additional questions looked at California policy of the ESL program and use of personal experiences to deliver instruction.

The researcher bolstered her findings in other ways. Each teacher was required to write a statement commenting on their views on California’s language-learning policy, school policy, ESL programs and curriculum as well as standardized tests. This was based on the Ajayi’s belief that teachers’ views were a social construction, a belief previously introduced by Wenger (2005, 153)

Each teacher was also interviewed for a 20-30 minute period to explain their views about teaching ESL and the effectiveness of using English-only within the program, which was one of the four programs used in California (others being Basic Bilingual, Dual-Language and Structured English.) other questions looked at the effectiveness of their teacher education program and how they used their own background in their classrooms.

Her schools were randomly selected from two of the seven mini-districts in Los Angeles because over 20% of the students in the schools were classified as ESL learners. The teachers were recommended by the schools’ ESL or bilingual coordinator. There was an 81.42% response rate to the initial survey and the teachers represented approximately 37% of the ESL junior high teachers.

The quantitative data was analyzed using the SPSS PC+ statistical software with the probability level of p<.05 set for all tests of statistical significance.

To analyze the qualitative data, the author applied the framework of critical reflexivity, which is the practice of having teachers examine their presuppositions about their roles and responsibilities based on their personal views of teaching (p. 262).

In short, the findings of the researcher were varied. She found that Hispanic teachers were most likely to employ their personal views and experiences in their roles as teachers. African-American teachers understood the importance of using their personal histories and generally felt that their social structure had an influence on their view of the ESL program. White teachers also noted the importance of using personal backgrounds, but felt more inclined to have to make a conscious effort to build relationships with students.

Conceptually, this can be a useful study. Although it centers on teachers in one city, the findings deal with relationships between teachers and ESL students and address the ethnic differences by presenting the findings of Hispanic, African-American and White teachers. These findings may transfer to other geographic locations in the United States. However, it may have been more useful to find teachers in other diverse cities. New York, Phoenix, El Paso, Washington D.C. and Miami come to mind. Certainly, time and money would be necessary to advance the study.

I am impressed with the methodology used by Ajayi. She covered many bases as part of her mixed-methods study. Getting an 81% response rate showed dedication and care to the selection process used for her initial survey. She also employed other methods for data gathering, such as written perspectives and interviews. It may have added richness to the study to have subjects bring in historical artifacts for their interview, but Ajayi’s findings are relevant and thorough as is.

This study serves as a good starting point for what I am aiming to accomplish with my pilot study on ESL teachers. First, Ajayi gives the methodology which presents many ideas on how to tackle this topic for my pilot study. In fact, the author notes her own pilot study in her validation of instrument section, recalling her interviews with eight ESL teachers in four junior high schools in Los Angeles. This could serve as a model for my pilot study, although I anticipate more difficulty finding ESL teachers in this region, so my pilot study might have to work with four teachers in two schools.

A second helpful feature comes in the author’s section on further research. She feels the needs of this to be in the specific approaches that teachers use to teach ESL – a collection of data about classroom practices, as well as student responses to these approaches. From these findings, Ajayi theorizes that qualitative differences in instructional effectiveness and ESL student learning can be realized.

Finally, although this study cannot be used for the pilot study, it does provide references for almost 50 other sources which can enhance my further research on this topic.

 

References

Ajayi, L. (2011). How ESL teachers relate their ethnic and social backgrounds in practice, Race,

            Ethnicity and Education, 14, 2, 253-275.

 

Los Angeles Unified School District (2008). Los Angeles Unified School District Student

            Demographics. www.lausd.k12.ca.us.html.

 

Wenger, E. (2005). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning and identity. Cambridge

            University Press: Cambridge.

Remembering Mikey D

Today marks the 18th anniversary of perhaps the most horrific day in modern American history - the day when over 3,000 Americans were killed due to the acts of cowardly terrorists. I still can't believe it has been this long.

Today, just like I've done every September 11th since 2002, I pause to remember of one of our friends from my alma mater, Wagner College. Michael DeRienzo was one of my friends and TKE brothers who had moved on after college to become a finance type of person and one who worked for Cantor Fitzgerald on the 104th floor of the North WTC Tower on the day of 9/11/2001. To put our school's location in perspective, Lower Manhattan was right on the other side of New York Harbor from Wagner and many graduates had their senior picture taken from the roof of 15-story Harbor View Hall with the Twin Towers in the background. On that fateful day, many Wagner students were able to witness the explosions from their dorm room and the second plane appeared to have circled back toward Manhattan from just over the campus.

As a tribute, I wrote this piece for a special issue of the Wagnerian, our school newspaper which I was editor of in 1985-86. I also posted it to an online tribute website at the request of Ken Nilsen, fellow frater, and now Dean of Student Life at Stevens Tech in NJ. From this, Hank Nuwer, the site's caretaker, published it as part of a tribute to fallen fraternity and sorority members. Since then, Hank, a journalism professor and foremost authority on hazing and fraternal issues, has become a friend and mentor for me.

Anyhow, over the years, several people have asked for a copy of this tribute to our friend Michael DeRienzo, affectionately known as "Mikey D" to us at Wagner. On this, the day before the 10th anniversary of his death, in his honor, I would like to resubmit a writing of 15 years ago, simply titled, Remembering Mikey D.

R.I.P. Michael DeRienzo -- 9/11/2001


Michael DeRienzo, Class of ’87, was one of many lost in Sept. 11 tragedy

I know that the tragic events of September 11^th affected everybody that is going to read  this. We continually feel the pain, and it is a horrible pain. Our hearts have reached out, and we feel for our families and friends.

The Wagner community lost good friends on that terrible day. Michael DeRienzo is the friend that some of us knew best, and with the help of his friends, I wish to tell you why our “Mikey D” meant so much to us.

Our Wagner history dates back 15 years or so, but the time frame really doesn’t matter. We did the same things as current students do. We played football on the Oval, painted the anchor for Homecoming, grabbed a bite in the Hawk’s nest when the dinner menu looked bad, and as Tau Kappa Epsilon brothers, enjoyed our fraternity home. At that time, it was in a dark hallway under Cunard Hall.

Mike was a big part of our college experience. He was a Staten islander, and attended Wagner with his twin sister Lisa. They were very close, in a way that only twins can know. Their mother, Mrs. DeRienzo, also worked at Wagner, in the audio-visual department. She was a single parent, so it was just the three of them, and it must have been special to be that close on a daily basis.

Chris Ryan remembers Mike with one word – family. In January of 1986, the DeRienzos invited a large group of people over to their home to watch the Super Bowl. It was quite obvious to see how close they were. Last spring, Chris played the role of host when Mike and Steve Mehler passed through his home in Albany, en route to some skiing in Vermont. As he recalls, it was a meeting filled with big laughs, and big smiles. A couple of beers at Troy Pub, a quaint establishment where Chris is managing these days. A great visit. There was no reason to think it wouldn’t be repeated at a later date, but as Chris recalls, “I’m a handshaker, not a hugger. I’m glad I was a hugger that day.”

The day after the attack, Wade Appelman was stuck in Atlanta, GA, quite far from his home in Boulder, CO. There were no planes flying out, and a 22-hour car ride awaited. Wade began telling his work colleagues about his last “road trip.” Again, this dates back to 1986, more specifically, “Spring Break.” Wade, Raj Muthusamy, Dave Smolka, Pete Radigan and Mikey loaded their gear into Wade’s 1968 Mercury Montclair and headed to Ft. Myers, FL. To keep their expenses low, they spent a few days at Wade’s grandparents’ house.

Swimming in the family pool was fun, but Mike was getting edgy, so he invited Wade’s octogenarian grandfather out to a nice local restaurant… Hooters! Over a decade later, the grandparents still ask about the “nice boy that took Grandpa to that restaurant with the girls in the orange shorts.”

Mike had a sly sense of humor about him. I can recall bringing my then-fiancée’ to New York in 1990. A bunch of us went carousing through the city - Mike, Raj, Steve, possibly Brian Buckley, myself and my fiancée’ Ritz. Funny thing about our trips to Manhattan, during college and after; a visit to McSorley’s Pub always found its way onto the itinerary, and it certainly did so on this night. After  a while, my hollow leg filled up, and I had to excuse myself to go visit the trough (literally, it’s a ditch.) This was never a quick process at McSorley’s, with the single relief facility and the waiting line.

During my extended absence, one of the other customers decided to go talk with the single woman who, in spite of her engagement ring, looked to be alone. His advances were quickly shut down, not by Ritz, but my Mikey, who advised the gentleman that pursuing a conversation with “my wife!” was not a good idea. Embarrassed, the Romeo wannabe left.

Most often, Mike’s humor came out in a positive way. I always thought that Mike reminded me of Jerry Seinfeld, without the biting sarcasm. Years ago, Mike learned that I had taken up singing, country music nonetheless. For a New Yorker talking to a Virginian, he could have had a field day with this. Instead, his correspondences would ask whether I had met Garth Brooks yet. No, Garth never quite made it to the Cowboy Café on Route 1. 

Ernie Jackson has a much better recollection. Ernie and Mikey were fellow R.A.’s; in fact, his favorite memory of Mike was watching him perform the dreaded “Exterminator Duty,” required of all R.A.’s on Friday morning. Mike didn’t immediately understand Ernie. He was music major and played the guitar. Mike got a few laughs from that; after all, who goes to college to learn how to play the guitar? But it wasn’t mean spirited. In fact, after some time, it was obvious that it was his way of showing acceptance. It must have had some effect, as the two would laugh about those days later while riding the Staten Island railway from Dongan Hills. In Mikey’s honor, Ernie is having a custom guitar built and donated to Wagner College. From what I’ve heard, it’s going to be one awesome ax.

Ernie touched on some other points that I have heard many times in the three weeks since learning of Mike’s passing. His infectious smile, can-do attitude, positive outlook, they all existed. Tom Kettell mentioned Mike’s easy demeanor, and that was also a great part of Mike’s personality. But he possessed a charm that’s hard to explain.

Here’s one example of this. In the mid-1980’s, the Wagnerian office was located in Union 227. Its location made it the perfect shortcut to get to the cafeteria, and most of my TKE brothers traveled freely through the office before and after meals. Looking back, we should have charged a toll. This used to drive my dear friend and Wagnerian editor successor Mystica Alexander crazy to no end. But she did make mention of the fact that “well, at least Mikey D stops and says hi and how are things going? He’s probably the nicest of your fraternity brothers.” I may have to answer for this later, and the wording may not be exact, but the thought is there. Actually, it was Mystica who informed me of the tragic news of Mike’s death.

It was terrific to see that Mike turned into an accomplished adult. He graduated from Wagner in 1987, with a degree in business administration. After five years at U.S. Trust in Manhattan, he took a position as a broker with Cantor Fitzgerald, and worked on the 104^th floor of 1 World Trade Center.

I only know one detail of Mike’s whereabouts on the morning of September 11^th. He had arrived for work and was there at 8:46 AM, when a jumbo jet crashed into his building. He was at work and this was confirmed by a call from Todd Rutman, the father of Mike’s goddaughter. Mike assured Todd that they had heard an explosion downstairs and were leaving the building immediately. I don’t know the tone of this conversation, but I get the feeling that Mike was optimistic about his chances for survival that day.

A scholarship fund has been started in Mike’s name. Donations can be made out to the Michael DeRienzo Scholarship Fund, Wagner College, 1 Campus Road, Staten Island, NY 10301.

It is hard to confine the grief that we have all felt and are still feeling. There are other Wagner graduates who lost their lives on September 11^th, and we mourn for Timothy Finnerty, Michael Clarke, Joseph Doyle, and Michael Cammarata. Although this is written for our friend and fraternity brother, the hurt is also felt for the people that we never had the opportunity to meet.

Our community at Wagner lost a great deal of innocence on September 11^th. It is saddest to realize that some of our most innocent friends and family members were the ones who died. To our friend, Mikey D., we pray for your soul and for your family. You were a great friend to many of us, and we will greatly miss you. Goodbye, friend.

Developing the Qualitative Research Matrix

Deciding to undertake a qualitative research project generally begins with a self-check of sorts. Unlike the quantitative project, which is data-driven, the qualitative researcher is looking to find matching threads, marked by thoughts, feelings and experiences, which are qualified by a number of aspects about the subjects own views of reality.

Much like the subject, however, the researcher also enters into a project with his/her own world views, beliefs and opinions. Since we all view a situation from a different “lens,” it is risky for the researcher to enter a study with the belief that his world views will not possibly skew the findings from others. Knowing one’s own values and nature of reality is a necessary part of the qualitative research process.

To satisfy the self-checking process, it is important for the qualitative researcher to develop a matrix. Generally, the matrix addresses assumptions about reality which look at five different types of assumptions. They can be put into the form of a question and are listed below:

Matrix overview

·         Ontology – what is the nature of reality?

·         Epistemology – what is the relationship between the researcher and that being researched?

·         Axiology – what is the role of values?

·         Rhetorical – what is the language of research?

·         Methodological – what is the process of research?

Here are some of my concerns with regard to developing the matrix.

Ontology – reality is viewed from many different lenses, same picture can be seen many ways. The researcher is an instrument.

Epistemology – use self-immersion if necessary. Become immersed enough in the community to be taken seriously, but not enough to influence answers. Intention is to build trust with participants.

Axiology – embrace differences, but be careful with questioning. Researcher does not want to influence data.

Rhetorical – pay great attention to developing questions. Ask open-ended questions to develop follow-up topics. Use “How” and “Why” questions instead of “What”

Methodological – evaluate and adjust methods. Ask “What methods work with a group?” Interviews, observations, archives..?? Pilot studies help.

How Do School Administrators Successfully Resolve Conflicts?

Conflict is an inevitable by-product of human relations. Having the ability to deal with conflict requires many personal skills, as well as a flair for honesty, consistency, and tact. As a school leader, many administrators get stuck in the middle of conflict simply by virtue of their position. For example, the principal leads a school building, but also serves as an intermediary between the wishes of the district and her teachers and students. When the district promotes an unpopular ruling or program to the district, it is up to the principal, whether the leader is in agreement or not, to promote the new program to faculty and staff as part of the "buy-in" process.

Conflict works both ways. As the person between the district administration and the staff, having to ability to work through the inherent conflicts and keep the building moving forward is like walking a tightrope. The best leaders tend to walk this rope best by remembering one important guideline. It is not always the smartest person who accomplishes the most, but the person who has, what author Daniel Goleman calls “emotional intelligence” that can maintain an even keel and be productive when all signs are showing the threat of impending chaos in ones building.

Before breaking the topic in half between dealing with superordinates and subordinates, I would like to look at a general theory on conflict resolution. In their book Supervision and Instructional Leadership, authors Carl Glickman, Stephen Gordon, and Jovita Ross-Gordon advance a five-step system designed to handle conflict among individuals. To preface, the writers suggest that the leader keep the disagreement focused on the ideas rather than the personalities, and this makes perfect sense. I believe this procedure works regardless of whom one is dealing with as a school leader; the difference comes in the importance of the role the leader can play within this procedure. The procedure works as follows:

·         Ask each member to state his or her conflicting position

·         Ask each member to restate the other’s position

·         Ask each member if conflict still exists

·         Ask for underlying value positions: Why do they still stick to their positions?

·         Ask other members of the group (if possible) if there is a third position that synthesizes, compromises, or transcends the conflict. If not, reclarify the various positions. Acknowledge that there exists no apparent reconciliation, and move the discussion to other matters. (p. 335)

These authors put this formula into a group meeting situation, but it can work between two people, if both people are willing to be honest and open, and follow each step.

Interpersonal relationships are extremely important in the school leader role. While it is necessary to have ones staff working in harmony with each other, the better reason for solving conflict when it occurs is to keep the flow of information running up and down the hierarchical ladder. A breakdown in communication is usually the first by-product of an unresolved conflict.

In light of my philosophical beliefs, the next step is to differentiate between how to deal with mediating conflict during dealings with superordinates and subordinates, because the two groups require a different set of strategies. This is because of the school leader’s position in relation to both of these groups.

By definition, superordinates are our superiors, so a cautious approach must be met when dealing with situations of conflict. Although I would be in a leadership role, it would still not be as important as the role of the individual I am having the conflict with; therefore, respect for ones position, as well as respect for my own subordinate position has to be recognized during all phases. Of course, I wish to make my point, be listened to, and find a resolution to the problem. But, I do not wish to upset, or offend my superordinate. This could lead to problems in other areas, such as getting promoted in the future. Who wants to promote a person that is difficult and doesn’t work with the team? In short, there are very few leaders willing to do so.

A calm demeanor and a rational sense of being come in handy when dealing with bosses. The first thing to keep in mind is that everyone is on the same team. When one needs help as a leader, he cannot always ask  subordinates. The superordinate is the person that helps the leader, and this has to be kept in mind.

On the other side of the fence, a leader relies on subordinates to make life easier. Any conflict management has to be solved without making showing too much authority. Teamwork leads to a happier working environment in the future than “puffing ones chest” and reminding all of the subordinates who is in charge.

Authors Snowden and Gorton, last mentioned in the community liaison section, also offer up some interesting opinions in their School Leadership and Administration text. In the conflict management chapter, the pair breaks down conflict management into two parts – the effort to prevent or resolve disagreement, and the effort to initiate conflict because of the need to take an unpopular stand or introduce changes. One example of this would be when a school leader has to take action against a popular, but low performing teacher.

Snowden and Gorton examine four ways of dealing with conflict. The first is the cooperative approach, which emphasizes the stressing of mutual group goals and understanding others’ views. Second is the confirming approach, and this stresses the importance of communicating mutual respect for the competence of the group members. My philosophy matches with these two approaches and disagrees with the other two advanced – the competitive approach, where someone must win and someone must lose, and finally, the avoidance approach where withdrawal from discussing problems or settling differences leads to a negative situation. (p. 98) Most results of research studies confirm that the first two approaches have been found to be the most effective.

There is also useful information on conflict management philosophy from a pamphlet offered by Rachelle Lamb on behalf of the Center for Nonviolent Communication. Titled, Communication Basics, An Overview of Nonviolent Communication, the 24 page handout centers around themes, which are designed to “facilitate rich and meaningful connections with ourselves and others.” (p. 2) It looks at conflict management from an emotional point of view. While the concept may sound unusual, I read this and put many of its tenets into my own philosophy, and believe that it works with superordinates as well as subordinates. Lamb begins her observation of communication with short pieces on alienating language, choosing our responses, and focusing our attention, better known as listening. I believe that a centerpiece of philosophy in dealing with conflict has to focus on being the best listener that one can possibly be. The two most important words to help resolve any conflict are “I understand.”

Lamb also introduces us to the NVC model. The NVC (or Nonviolent Communication) model focuses on four steps. The first is observation, or stating clearly what a person is saying or doing that is or isn’t enriching life without using words that evaluate, judge, label, analyze or criticize.

The second step deals with feelings. Here one connects with and expresses what is alive in us using words that accurately describe the emotions and sensations we are experiencing. A third step looks at needs, and this occurs when one connects with the met or unmet need or value that is the source of the feelings. Finally, the final step is requests, which is when we ask for that which would enrich life. (p. 9)

Lamb also has sound advice on topics such as expressing empathy, anger, and gratitude.  

As a school leader, one can see the value in using the beliefs of nonviolent communication as a conflict manager. Far too often, the wrong word to a person can change the tone of a conversation or conflict resolution quickly. Coupled with the wrong non-verbal communications, this can lead to disaster in a conflict situation.

A final piece of conflict management philosophy would draw on some thoughts provided by an article, which comes from a 2006 article in Psychology Today and titled Criticism: Taking the Hit. Since most conflict management deals with negative feedback being directed by both parties at each other, it would make sense to base some part of my philosophy on the ability to deal with negative criticism, and use this ability as an advantage. Dr. Judith Sills, a psychologist, wrote this article and she prefaces her thoughts with an abstract thought which can be paraphrased by noting that learning to use negative feedback to your own advantage is “a sign that you’re moving up.” (p. 61)

In her essay, Dr. Sills hones in on one non-verbal tactic that I would find priceless when added to my repertoire of conflict management skills. This tactic is the “public smile.” I especially like the comment made as being Rule Number One when facing criticism, which is, sit back and take it in. The public smile is not a response; in fact, it is not even a defense. However, it shows that the person is listening and regardless of outrage, is communicating that thought back to the speaker. It also helps to dissolve the potential anger of the speaker. Having the ability to pull off the public smile is truly a valuable gift to have, as well as a difficult technique to develop.

There are certain things  to take into consideration as a leader when dealing with conflict resolution with superiors, as well as subordinates. While an understanding of one's position in the conflict has to be understood, many of the same techniques can be used to work through the various conflicts, and lead to a productive resolution.

Random Critiques

Admittedly, it must be the end of summer, because I am running out of material. Fortunately, Qualitative Research class at William and Mary begins next Wednesday and I'll begin on a whole new series of writings. If this course allows me to focus on cultural competency (again, my preferred dissertation topic), the blog may feature a number of articles centering on this topic. I have been pondering the idea of focusing the subject toward high school coaches. For today, I'm going back four years to several critiques I wrote - one on phonics, another on spelling and the third on literacy training.

JOURNAL CRITIQUE  #1: PHONICS: A Large Phoneme-Grapheme Frequency Count Revised

     The first article I chose to review comes from Edward Fry in “The Journal of Literacy Research” and was published in the spring of 2004. Fry aims to retrieve previous data gathered by academics such as Hanna et al (1966), Thorndike and Large (1944) and to simplify this data and make it more usable. Fry centers on two questions:

1. What are the most useful (highest frequency) phoneme-grapheme correspondences?
2. What are the most frequent ways of spelling these phonemes?

     I found this research to be well prepared and well presented. By using data from over

a half-dozen studies covering a sixty year period, Fry brings a wealth of facts to the table. He can divide his study between vowel classification and consonant categories. One interesting note about the former comes from the tidbit that Merriam Webster dictionary’s vowel classification system went from 33 vowel sounds to 22 to facilitate their original algorithms.

     The consonant section gets more technical with multiple phonemes and consonant digraphs mentioned at the forefront. Fry points out the differences among the studies while focusing on certain items – such as the digraph TH and how it is used in high frequency words (i.e. this, that, these), but only used in 411 different words. I was surprised buy the intensity of the findings and how the author attempts to make sense of such a plethora of data.

     At this point, I’ll have to determine how this material will relate to my teaching. It has surprised me over the past three weeks to learn how little I know about phonics. I now have a newfound respect for the work that reading teachers do. Working with their students is like detective work, in that they use different techniques to find the problems while developing solutions to solve the problem. I look forward to using these methods myself to help students, but in a sense, right now I’m the student.

CRITIQUE #2 – A NATIONAL SURVEY OF SPELLING INSTRUCTION: Investigating Teachers’ Beliefs and Practice

     For the second critique, I revisited the Journal of Literary Research and found an article on spelling, penned by Mary Jo Fresch. Fresch was seeking information on current spelling practices of teachers from grades 1-5.

     Fresch’s thoughts went along the following line. She feels that teachers in the early grades, in spite of having new strategies available, choose to continue using traditional models for teaching spelling. With this in mind, her group purchased 2200 teacher names from Market Data Retrieval. These teachers were evenly split between grades 1-5. Fresch surveyed these teachers with three main questions in mind.

1. What are some common instructional practices?
2. What do teachers believe about spelling instruction?
3. How are beliefs and practices aligned in the teaching of spelling?

My critique of this article, published in the fall of 2003, focuses on two areas – the survey response, and the findings.

     First, the survey response. Of the 2200 teachers who received surveys, only 355 responded. The group was pleased with the 16% response rate, but my knowledge of surveys recalls that at least 1000 people need to be surveyed for any findings to be deemed meaningful (i.e. Nielsen, Arbitron ratings). Therefore, as a reviewer, I am not sure that Fresch’s numbers constitute a full finding, and may be skewed. After all, if the surveys were evenly divided, then there are only 71 responses per grade.

     Second, the results of the survey leave something to be desired. If not enough people were interviewed, then the results have to be in question. In fairness, Fresch and her co-workers only had enough funds to buy 2200 names, so it was not a question of oversight. However, some of her findings can be proven valid. For example, 72% of teachers used one spelling list for the whole class, while 86% used a weekly list. No argument here. Other results without such a resounding response in one direction must be held up to the light. Overall, this survey is a good start to finding if spelling instruction has changed over the past 50 years.

CRITIQUE #3 – LOOKING FOR LEADERSHIP IN LITERACY TRAINING – How is New Zealand addressing this issue, and what can we learn from it?

     I found an interesting literacy issue halfway around the world worth reviewing. As Americans address our own issues of improving literacy, there is a unique situation occurring in New Zealand. On the world scale, New Zealand students have one of the highest reading levels in the world. This is admirable, but the next statistic is ironic. New Zealand also has the biggest gap between its best and worst readers. The purpose of this article, penned by Anne Alkema and Pam O’Connell for Literacy Today, addresses the measures which the New Zealand Ministry of Education has taken to help principals raise achievement in their schools.

     My first impression about the article was that it is a firsthand account of what has happened in New Zealand. Ms. O’Connell, one of the authors, is indeed the Ministry of Education’s Learning Media manager. If anyone could explain the assets and liabilities of the program, this would be a good stakeholder to interview.

     In my opinion, this article makes sense for three reasons. First, it agrees with the theory that the most important factor in learning is the quality of interaction between the student and teacher. In other words, the teacher affects student achievement more than any other factor.  Second, it notes that teacher capability is linked to the quality of management and leadership within a school. Finally, the article also makes a strong point that all subject teachers are teachers of literacy. Perhaps these are obvious points to American educators, but it is refreshing to see the same views held 12,000 miles away.

Academic Achievement and Money - The Debate Continues

The correlation between wealth and academic achievement has been the cause of debate for a long time, and because few concrete results have been provided, the debate continues. Part of the problem comes from determining the criteria. Where does one set the bar to determine a “high-income” student? For that matter, how is a student classified as “low-income?” The parameters are different for each state, and constantly changing, as evidenced in the state court systems. Perhaps a better question is, “Does more money translate into better academic performance?”

A quartet of educators from the state of Georgia decided to examine this correlation as it played out in their state. Over a four-year period, the team of Dr. Steven Hankla of Colquitt County Schools, Dr. James L. Pate, Dr. Don Leech, and Scott Grubbs, all of Valdosta State University, examined differences in academic achievement among its school systems, and how they related to several financial factors among the various systems. Each of the 57 school systems in Georgia was studied, and the results make for a fair assessment of any relation between academics and economics, at least in the Peachtree state. It is safe to suggest that this study cannot serve as a national model, but proves to be a thorough study, at least as it is seen in one state.

Although education reform has been receiving attention since the early 1900’s, most of the debate has been shaped by studies of the past thirty years. Currently, most of the reform has become a combination of attempting to ensure financial equity as matched up against educational competence.

Some of this concern was driven by legal challenges, but it also draws on the American political system. If all men are created equal, then we are supposed to believe in equal opportunities for current and future generations. There are few arguments that the “equal opportunity” concept has been overlooked on many occasions in American history, as this ideology does exist in the minds and hearts of some of our political leaders.

Part of this concept extends to the educational systems of America.  The belief that all children are worthy of the same quality education regardless of family or socio-economic background is endorsed by many of today’s American political candidates. But, has our society been able to provide an efficient education for all students who desire one?

Four Georgian educators set out to see if education reform was working in their state. Over a four-year period, they studied the data from the Georgia High School Graduation Test (GHSGT), and measured this scoring data against the income averages of all of the school districts in Georgia. Their investigation was thorough, and loaded with data to examine.

According to the study’s purpose statement, they set out to compare Georgia’s high wealth school systems to Georgia’s low-wealth school systems. The team set out to determine if the current funding in Georgia provided all of the students with an adequate education. Also, they studied the relationships between funding formula variables as well as the relationship between free and reduced lunch percentages, high school completion rate, and percentage passing on the first attempt of the GHSGT.

     The study addressed these two questions:

1. Is there a significant difference between Georgia’s high wealth and low wealth school systems in academic performance as measured by the Georgia High School Graduation Test (GHSGT) for Adequate Yearly Progress?
2. Is there a significant difference between Georgia’s high wealth and low wealth school systems in high school completion rate as measured for Adequate Yearly Progress?

Analysis/Response

Being an English teacher who studied English, while minoring in History and Social Studies, in college, it is important to note that the research techniques and standards for student separation were difficult to understand using the mathematical terms. In layman’s terms, the difference between high income and low income students came from a complicated measuring system using variables such as revenue generated from personal property tax by each county, as well as revenue generated from the Special Purpose Local Option Sales tax, or SPLOST.

The researchers took this information, and broke the school systems into five separate, but equal in number, income groups, called quintiles. While the numbers and formulas do not make complete sense to me, it is obvious that there were many factors taken into consideration, and I believe that the authors did their best to place each of the 57 school systems in the correct quintile.

I feel that the authors achieved their purpose with this study. My experiences as a REALTOR and school finance student have taught me a few things about this subject, and it is true that many localities measure their status for obtaining state money or education by the amount of personal property revenue they collect each year. There are certainly other factors, and the formula gets confusing, but in Virginia, it is no surprise when Fairfax, Arlington, and Alexandria have a .80 composite index, while Newport News and Hampton rate around .35. Using the financial variables that the researchers did, and measuring them against the same test (GHSGT), I think that the results are valid.

I would not agree that Georgia represents all American school systems; then again, no single state can stand as a representative of all 50. However, the study does provide a thorough examination of one state, and if the factors are solely dealing with income and test scores, then this is a fair, competent and worthwhile study.

Conclusion

     After collecting the data over four years (1998-2002) and analyzing their findings, the authors concluded that there was a pattern of increased academic achievement in the more affluent parts of Georgia. As the authors added more factors, such as free and reduced lunch percentages, dropout rates, and first time passing percentages and passing rate on subsequent tests, the results remained consistent.

     The strengths of this study are the number of students measured, the use of all 57 counties in Georgia, the complicated, but fair formula used to measure the income of each county to determine which should be consider low-income, and high-income, and the four year time window. I believe these factors led to a fair study with a valuable conclusion.

     The authors did note several weaknesses. Included on their list were history, pretest sensitivity, mortality/attrition, and instrumentation, researcher bias, statistical regression, and setting generalizability (Cohen, 1988; Gay, 1996; Huck, 2000; and Huck & Cormier, 1996.)

     Pretest sensitization (Cohen, 1988; Gay, 1996; Huck, 2000; and Huck & Cormier, 1996) may have provided an unfair advantage for subjects exposed to testing format and subject matter from pretest materials practiced. Also, the subjects may have learned to become familiar with the test format or environment, thus reducing anxiety.

The Policy Behind the Charter School Movement

The policy of permitting states to create charter schools for its students is gaining a great deal of momentum in academic circles. In fact, as of 2009, 44 states, including Virginia, have opened the door to allow charter schools to open within their boundaries. Virginia has only opened four charter schools to date, enrolling a mere 240 students. By comparison, neighboring North Carolina has opened almost 100 such institutions.

The idea behind charter schools started as a response to dissatisfaction with the current public school system. There was a school of thought that the public schools were failing for a number of reasons, including, but not limited to, scarcity of money, under qualified teachers and archaic teaching methods. As concerned parents and officials of local jurisdictions began to analyze the problem, many questions surfaced. “Why should a child have to go to a failing school just because of his/her geographic location?” “What can be done to close the achievement gap between white students and minority students?” “If the existing school system is failing, can we do better?” From those questions were borne the outline of the charter school policy.

Generally, there was a feeling of helplessness as stakeholders felt separated from the process and felt like the legislative system in place would not be able to improve public education to a level of their liking. Not being able to find a suitable alternative policy, these stakeholders acted on the feeling that they needed to take matters into their own hands.

       Some general definitions of charter schools include the following:

·         Elementary/secondary schools that receive public money without having to adhere to public school rules and regulations

·         An alternative to other public schools, but without the ability to charge tuition

·         Magnet schools, or institutions that provide a specialized curriculum in a field, whether it is arts, science or math.

For the most part, charter schools are more prominent in urban school districts, such as Chicago and Washington, D.C. Some schools thrive, while others are struggling. New York City’s Promise Academy is an example of a charter school enjoying tremendous success by virtually erasing its achievement gap between black and white students.

However, the success of charter schools is a debatable topic, and this is probably the reason why the state of Virginia has been slow to push this policy of offering alternative education to students and parents who are unsatisfied with the state of their neighborhood school. In the recent gubernatorial campaign between Republican Bob McDonnell and Democrat Creigh Deeds it made for an interesting case study to see how each candidate planned on influencing and developing this policy.

Since election, McDonnell has tried to seize the opportunity. He is planning to loosen restrictions on new charter schools. Currently, the local school boards must approve potential new charter schools. Under McDonnell’s plan, charter school organizers may appeal to the Virginia Board of Education in the event of being rejected at the local level. This may help to resolve conflict at the lower level, as local school boards tend to resist competition, especially in the form of a charter school. In cases where a school division has one or more failing schools, the request for a charter school could be made directly to the state. While realizing that the charter school is not the only cure-all, the Republican nominee for Governor has been noted in a Virginian Pilot-Online editorial as at least putting considerable thought to the issue and developing a solution to the education problem, using charter schools as a viable alternative while keeping an eye on the 72 failing schools in the Old Dominion.

The same editorial criticized Democrat Deeds for not having a proactive solution about the charter school issue. This came in the wake of a statement by the Secretary of Education, Arne Duncan, wh warned states that resistance to charter schools could result in a reduction of incoming federal funds.

However, Deeds made the following comment on his http://www.deedsforvirginia.com/ website:

       “Like President Obama, I am in favor of innovative charter school programs that are held to appropriate standards of accountability. My opponent’s record, on the other hand, reveals his longstanding support for diverting needed funding from our public schools through voucher and tuition tax credit schemes.” – Creigh Deeds

In short, the main obstacles facing the development of charter schools in Virginia look to be the resistance of local school boards and the current state of the economy as local school systems look to overcome another round of budget cuts in 2012. The failing economy could also affect the financial situation of potential charter school founders.

Resources

Virginia Charter School Resource Center.  From http://www.virginiacharterschools.org/index.html. 

Editorial. Charting New Course for Charter Schools The Virginia Pilot. 10 July 2009. From

     http://www.pilotonline.com/

Holland, Robert. How About a Statewide Charter-School District for Virginia?  The Virginia Pilot.  12

     June 2009.  From http://www.lexingtoninstitute.org/1434.shtml

Education Unsheltered. http://www2.timesdispatch.com/rtd/news/opinion/editorials/article/ED-

     CHARTER12_20090611-184806/273283/

Dominic Goes To Hollywood – Part II – The Archbishop and the Wait

Upon further review, there are too many details about Dominic's Jeopardy game to lump together with this review of the L.A. trip. Therefore, an "executive" decision was made to extend this to a three-part series with Part III - The Game to post next Thursday.

After acquiring the services of grandparents Frankie and Louise to watch the three younger kids, Dominic and mother Gina prepared for the trip of a lifetime – a four-day trek to Hollywood, CA and CBS Studios, where the youngster would test his wits on Jeopardy against 14 other mentally accomplished pre-teens under the watchful eye of a studio audience, Alex Trebek and eventually, about seven million TV viewers.

Upon arrival, mother and son were escorted to their luxurious hotel, which turned out to be on the outskirts of CBS Studios. While many first-time visitors to La-La Land would have been interested in obtaining a “Map of the Stars” homes, Dominic had a clear idea of where his first destination in California would be. Church.

This choice might be surprising to some, but to know the young man from Bristow, VA is to know that it makes perfect sense. Dominic is a devout Catholic, a member of Holy Trinity Parish in Gainesville, VA, where he is active in church activities and has served for four years as an altar boy. He aspires to become a priest and was introduced as such to the Jeopardy audience.

As luck would have it, the nearest church to the hotel also happened to be the centerpiece of the Catholic community in Los Angeles – the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angeles. The Archdiocese of Los Angeles was in transition last February with the retirement of Cardinal Roger Mahony at age 75. In his place, Pope Benedict XVI named Archbishop Jose Gomez of   San Antonio, TX as his successor. In what can only be described as an amazing turn of fate, the Mass which the Oliveras attended at the Cathedral also happened to be the first Mass conducted by the newly appointed Archbishop Gomez. They were able to briefly meet with His Excellency after Mass.

There were other sights and sounds over the next couple of days to keep the trip entertaining. But the day of taping was approaching and it was time for Dominic to get into focus.

For the uninitiated, the routine at Jeopardy, like many other game shows, is to tape several episodes at a time. As 15 players evenly split into five games, the plan was to tape all five episodes on one day. After arriving to the studio at 8 AM, the players were brought together and sequestered, kept away from family and friends.

Now together as a group of 15, the producer called the names of three contestants to be sent to makeup. Dominic was not one of them. But he, like the others, was allowed to watch the game from a separate seating section in the studio.

After the first game, another three names were called, then another three. As morning turned into afternoon, Dominic remained among the waiting, an experience he described simply as “nerve-wracking.”Said Olivera, “I kept wondering, when am I going to be next?” The producers plan was to avoid giving the contestants’ time to think and work through the myriad of nerves and anxieties. With only minutes to mentally prepare for being onstage, each contestant had a level playing field.

After the fourth triad of players was called, Dominic knew that he would compete in the fifth and final game of the day. He also knew who his opponents would be – Tony Harkin, an 11-year old from New Milford, CT and Maddie Harrington, a 12-year old from Palm Beach Gardens, CA. After several days of activities with the group, Dominic was familiar with his opposition. “I was talking with Tony in the Green Room, and he was one of the smartest kids there.”

With the conclusion of the fourth game, Dominic, Tony and Maddie made their way to the makeup area, a process which Dominic said was “thankfully short.”

The players were led to the set, which is much smaller than it appears on TV. In fact, most of the applause which occurs throughout the show is not caused by several hundred viewers. Truth be told, there are only about 100 "very loud" spectators in the studio, many who are tourists that wait in line for tickets to see the live tapings.

Escorted to their podiums, the lineup for the final game was set. Tony to the left, Maddie in the middle and Dominic on the far right. As the familiar Jeopardy theme began to play, the voice of Johnny Gilbert went to work… “THIS…..IS…..JEOPARDY… Now entering the studio are our three contestants….”

It was Showtime!

NEXT THURSDAY – August 11 – The Game

Charter Schools in Virginia

       It is interesting to view an issue through the lens of different observers. What one person sees as a sensible argument may make no sense at all to several others. We see it in everyday life, especially in the op-ed columns and among the rants and raves of politicians. Gaining a consensus on any issue is tough to accomplish, unless the group involved is incredibly like-minded.

       The different lenses do not change when the topic is education. Just as there are 7-8 designated learning styles (at least, according to Mr. Gardner), there are also dozens of preferred methods on how to run the education business, both inside and outside of the classroom.

       In a paper for William and Mary , I introduced the two candidates for governor of Virginia in the 2010 election, Creigh Deeds and Bob McDonnell. Of course, as a Democrat and a Republican running for the same office, they had to disagree on some issues, if only for political purposes. I noted that they had some disagreements on charter schools. But who and what were making them disagree?

       It is no surprise that the two gubernatorial candidates didn’t necessarily see eye-to-eye on the subject of opening more. The topic is historically a “hot button” issue, especially in Virginia. Even the beginning of Virginia charter schools was noted for its controversy. Back in the early 1970’s, Arlington County became the first jurisdiction in the Commonwealth to open a charter school. Although the school did not mention the word ‘charter,’ the opening of H-B Woodlawn Alternative School was met with resistance from school choice critics. Because of its individualized, caring environment, coupled with the love and peace theme of the youth at that time, the Woodlawn project was quickly labeled “Hippie High.” In spite of the name-calling, the school was successful with its impressive number of participants for the AP exams. Woodlawn continues to flourish today, as an offshoot of Yorktown High School.

       Virginia’s problem is not unusual. In theory, many groups and individuals are proponents of individualism and free choice. The problem only arises when free choice takes money or power away from another individual or group.

       It is difficult to find an interest group that exists solely for the abolition of charter schools. However, there are many interest groups that support the development of charter schools and seem to agree on the common enemies.

       The first group of interest is the Atlantic Legal Foundation. This foundation is run by a group of attorneys who offer counseling and legal representation pro bono if the client is a charter school leader conducting school business. As noted in its mission statement:

       “Atlantic Legal believes that charter schools offer a necessary and viable alternative for parents and children locked into failing public schools.  Recognizing that entrenched special-interest groups are opposed to the charter schools concept and advised by a board of nationally prominent leaders in education, Atlantic Legal has established a program devoted to the protection and strengthening of charter schools.”

       According to the ALF website, http://www.defendcharterschools.org/, the enemies of the charter school are teacher unions and school districts, because of the money and power that each loses when a charter school opens.

       Another supporter of charter schools is an advocate group that calls itself Flow, Inc. Its president, Michael Strong, recently wrote a seven-part series on charter schools for the Heartland Institute website. His initial offering details the story of two charter schools - School A and School B. School A is started by an inept administrator who hired unqualified teachers and turned in its paperwork late on a routine basis during its first year. School B is an exceptional school, which moves into the top 200 public high schools in the U.S. in its second year and the top 100 in its third. Remarkably, they are both the same school.  Strong makes the argument that the government sees School A, while the charter school supporters look at School B. To Strong, it’s not about individuals in the government that act as the charter school enemy, but rather the body of government as a whole.

       A third group is the Reason Foundation. With “free minds and free markets” as a slogan, one can see that the organization is all about choice. The only note that might be considered disagreeable from the Reason Foundation is that they emphasize the importance of charter schools to underprivileged and minority students, rather than students looking for an alternative regardless of race or economic status. The foundation is successful and counts celebrities such as Drew Carey among its supporters.

       In conclusion, the areas of agreement among these three groups appear to be that charter schools make for a good policy because they offer choice to students who may not have had one in the past. They may also offer a more diverse environment and an individualized form of learning. In short, the advantage is in having an alternative choice in schools.

       The vague disagreement areas among these three groups may deal with identifying the most noteworthy enemy of the charter school movement. One group blames teacher unions and school districts; another blames the government at-large, while a third barely acknowledges any disapproving faction.

       One might argue that the motivation among these three groups is probably as simple as saying that each supports the charter school concept. I would offer the notion that ALF is interested in creating a charitable diversion for the lawyers who support their cause, as even the richest attorneys will do some pro bono work for the sake of their reputation. I suggest that Flow, Inc. is looking to be seen as an authority on the charter school issue, while the Reason Foundation draws in the charter school supporters to its website and materials to introduce them to its other causes.

Resources

A Tale of Two Charter Schools. From http://flowidealism.org/. Retrieved on July 29, 2009.

Education Unchartered. http://www2.timesdispatch.com/rtd/news/opinion/editorials/article/ED-CHARTER12_20090611-184806/273283/  Retrieved 22 July, 2009

Holland, Robert. How About a Statewide Charter-School District for Virginia?  The Virginia Pilot.  12 June, 2009.  From http://www.lexingtoninstitute.org/1434.shtml

Retrieved on July 24, 2009. 

Los Angeles Times. Who Do Charter Schools Educate? From http://reason.org/news/show/who-do-charters-educate. Retrieved on July 27, 2009.

Virginia Charter School Resource Center.  From http://www.virginiacharterschools.org/index.html .  Retrieved on July 23, 2009.

http://www.defendcharterschools.org/. Mission Statement. Retrieved on July 26, 2009.